Measurement of the depth of maximum of air-shower profiles with energies between 1018.5 and 1020 eV using the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory and deep learning

Abdul Halim, A.; Abreu, P.; Aglietta, M.; Allekotte, I.; Almeida Cheminant, K.; Almela, A.; Aloisio, R.; Alvarez-Muñiz, J.; Ammerman Yebra, J.; Anastasi, G. A.; Anchordoqui, L.; Andrada, B.; Andrade Dourado, L.; Andringa, S.; Apollonio, L.; Aramo, C.; Araújo Ferreira, P. R.; Arnone, E.; Arteaga Velázquez, J. C.; Assis, P.; Avila, G.; Avocone, E.; Bakalova, A.; Barbato, F.; Bartz Mocellin, A.; Berat, C.; Bertaina, M. E.; Bhatta, G.; Bianciotto, M.; Biermann, P. L.; Binet, V.; Bismark, K.; Bister, T.; Biteau, J.; Blazek, J.; Bleve, C.; Blümer, J.; Boháčová, M.; Boncioli, D.; Bonifazi, C.; Bonneau Arbeletche, L.; Borodai, N.; Brack, J.; Brichetto Orchera, P. G.; Briechle, F. L.; Bueno, A.; Buitink, S.; Buscemi, M.; Büsken, M.; Bwembya, A.; Caballero-Mora, K. S.; Cabana-Freire, S.; Caccianiga, L.; Campuzano, F.; Caruso, R.; Castellina, A.; Catalani, F.; Cataldi, G.; Cazon, L.; Cerda, M.; Čermáková, B.; Cermenati, A.; Chinellato, J. A.; Chudoba, J.; Chytka, L.; Clay, R. W.; Cobos Cerutti, A. C.; Colalillo, R.; Coluccia, M. R.; Conceição, R.; Condorelli, A.; Consolati, G.; Conte, M.; Convenga, F.; Correia dos Santos, D.; Costa, P. J.; Covault, C. E.; Cristinziani, M.; Cruz Sanchez, C. S.; Dasso, S.; Daumiller, K.; Dawson, B. R.; de Almeida, R. M.; de Errico, B.; de Jesús, J.; de Jong, S. J.; de Mello Neto, J. R. T.; De Mitri, I.; de Oliveira, J.; de Oliveira Franco, D.; de Palma, F.; de Souza, V.; De Vito, E.; Del Popolo, A.; Deligny, O.; Denner, N.; Deval, L.; di Matteo, A.; do, J. A.; Dobre, M.; Dobrigkeit, C.; D'Olivo, J. C.; Domingues Mendes, L. M.; Dorosti, Q.; dos Anjos, J. C.; dos Anjos, R. C.; Ebr, J.; Ellwanger, F.; Emam, M.; Engel, R.; Epicoco, I.; Erdmann, M.; Etchegoyen, A.; Evoli, C.; Falcke, H.; Farrar, G.; Fauth, A. C.; Fehler, T.; Feldbusch, F.; Fenu, F.; Fernandes, A.; Fick, B.; Figueira, J. M.; Filip, P.; Filipčič, A.; Fitoussi, T.; Flaggs, B.; Fodran, T.; Fujii, T.; Fuster, A.; Galea, C.; García, B.; Gaudu, C.; Gherghel-Lascu, A.; Ghia, P. L.; Giaccari, U.; Glombitza, J.; Gobbi, F.; Gollan, F.; Golup, G.; Gómez Berisso, M.; Gómez Vitale, P. F.; Gongora, J. P.; González, J. M.; González, N.; Góra, D.; Gorgi, A.; Gottowik, M.; Guarino, F.; Guedes, G. P.; Guido, E.; Gülzow, L.; Hahn, S.; Hamal, P.; Hampel, M. R.; Hansen, P.; Harari, D.; Harvey, V. M.; Haungs, A.; Hebbeker, T.; Hojvat, C.; Hörandel, J. R.; Horvath, P.; Hrabovský, M.; Huege, T.; Insolia, A.; Isar, P. G.; Janecek, P.; Jilek, V.; Johnsen, J. A.; Jurysek, J.; Kampert, K.-H.; Keilhauer, B.; Khakurdikar, A.; Kizakke Covilakam, V. V.; Klages, H. O.; Kleifges, M.; Knapp, F.; Köhler, J.; Krieger, F.; Kunka, N.; Lago, B. L.; Langner, N.; Leigui de Oliveira, M. A.; Lema-Capeans, Y.; Letessier-Selvon, A.; Lhenry-Yvon, I.; Lopes, L.; Lu, L.; Luce, Q.; Lundquist, J. P.; Machado Payeras, A.; Majercakova, M.; Mandat, D.; Manning, B. C.; Mantsch, P.; Mariani, F. M.; Mariazzi, A. G.; Mariş, I. C.; Marsella, G.; Martello, D.; Martinelli, S.; Martínez Bravo, O.; Martins, M. A.; Mathes, H.-J.; Matthews, J.; Matthiae, G.; Mayotte, E.; Mayotte, S.; Mazur, P. O.; Medina-Tanco, G.; Meinert, J.; Melo, D.; Menshikov, A.; Merx, C.; Michal, S.; Micheletti, M. I.; Miramonti, L.; Mollerach, S.; Montanet, F.; Morejon, L.; Mulrey, K.; Mussa, R.; Namasaka, W. M.; Negi, S.; Nellen, L.; Nguyen, K.; Nicora, G.; Niechciol, M.; Nitz, D.; Nosek, D.; Novotny, V.; Nožka, L.; Nucita, A.; Núñez, L. A.; Oliveira, C.; Palatka, M.; Pallotta, J.; Panja, S.; Parente, G.; Paulsen, T.; Pawlowsky, J.; Pech, M.; Pȩkala, J.; Pelayo, R.; Pelgrims, V.; Pereira, L. A. S.; Pereira Martins, E. E.; Pérez Bertolli, C.; Perrone, L.; Petrera, S.; Petrucci, C.; Pierog, T.; Pimenta, M.; Platino, M.; Pont, B.; Pothast, M.; Pourmohammad Shahvar, M.; Privitera, P.; Prouza, M.; Querchfeld, S.; Rautenberg, J.; Ravignani, D.; Reginatto Akim, J. V.; Reininghaus, M.; Reuzki, A.; Ridky, J.; Riehn, F.; Risse, M.; Rizi, V.; Rodrigues de Carvalho, W.; Rodriguez, E.; Rodriguez Rojo, J.; Roncoroni, M. J.; Rossoni, S.; Roth, M.; Roulet, E.; Rovero, A. C.; Saftoiu, A.; Saharan, M.; Salamida, F.; Salazar, H.; Salina, G.; Sanabria Gomez, J. D.; Sánchez, F.; Santos, E. M.; Santos, E.; Sarazin, F.; Sarmento, R.; Sato, R.; Savina, P.; Schäfer, C. M.; Scherini, V.; Schieler, H.; Schimassek, M.; Schimp, M.; Schmidt, D.; Scholten, O.; Schoorlemmer, H.; Schovánek, P.; Schröder, F. G.; Schulte, J.; Schulz, T.; Sciutto, S. J.; Scornavacche, M.; Sedoski, A.; Segreto, A.; Sehgal, S.; Shivashankara, S. U.; Sigl, G.; Simkova, K.; Simon, F.; Smau, R.; Šmída, R.; Sommers, P.; Squartini, R.; Stadelmaier, M.; Stanič, S.; Stasielak, J.; Stassi, P.; Strähnz, S.; Straub, M.; Suomijärvi, T.; Supanitsky, A. D.; Svozilikova, Z.; Szadkowski, Z.; Tairli, F.; Tapia, A.; Taricco, C.; Timmermans, C.; Tkachenko, O.; Tobiska, P.; Todero Peixoto, C. J.; Tomé, B.; Torrès, Z.; Travaini, A.; Travnicek, P.; Tueros, M.; Unger, M.; Uzeiroska, R.; Vaclavek, L.; Vacula, M.; Valdés Galicia, J. F.; Valore, L.; Varela, E.; Vašíčková, V.; Vásquez-Ramírez, A.; Veberič, D.; Vergara Quispe, I. D.; Verzi, V.; Vicha, J.; Vink, J.; Vorobiov, S.; Watanabe, C.; Watson, A. A.; Weindl, A.; Wiencke, L.; Wilczyński, H.; Wittkowski, D.; Wundheiler, B.; Yue, B.; Yushkov, A.; Zapparrata, O.; Zas, E.; Zavrtanik, D.; Zavrtanik, M.

Published January 13, 2025

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Measurement of the depth of maximum of air-shower profiles with energies between 1018.5 and 1020 eV using the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory and deep learning

1. University of Adelaide
2. Universidade de Lisboa—UL
3. Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino (INAF)
4. INFN
5. Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare
6. Centro Atómico Bariloche and Instituto Balseiro (CNEA-UNCuyo-CONICET)
7. Nationaal Instituut voor Kernfysica en Hoge Energie Fysica (NIKHEF)
8. Radboud University Nijmegen
9. Institute of Nuclear Physics PAN
10. Instituto de Tecnologías en Detección y Astropartículas (CNEA, CONICET, UNSAM)
11. Universidad Tecnológica Nacional—Facultad Regional Buenos Aires
12. Gran Sasso Science Institute
13. INFN Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso
14. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela
15. University of Santiago de Compostela
16. Università di Catania
17. City University of New York
18. Università di Milano
19. RWTH Aachen University
20. Università Torino
21. Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo
22. Observatorio Pierre Auger and Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica
23. Università dell'Aquila
24. Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences
25. Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
26. Colorado School of Mines
27. Univ. Grenoble Alpes
28. Instituto de Física de Rosario (IFIR)—CONICET/U.N.R. and Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas U.N.R.
29. Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
30. Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
31. Université Paris-Saclay
32. International Center of Advanced Studies and Instituto de Ciencias Físicas, ECyT-UNSAM and CONICET, Campus Miguelete—San Martín
33. Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP)
34. State University of Campinas
35. Universidad de Granada and C.A.F.P.E.
36. University of Granada
37. Vrije Universiteit Brussels
38. Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas
39. Instituto de Tecnologías en Detección y Astropartículas (CNEA, CONICET, UNSAM), and Universidad Tecnológica Nacional—Facultad Regional Mendoza (CONICET/CNEA)
40. Universidade de São Paulo
41. University of São Paulo
42. Observatorio Pierre Auger
43. Palacky University
44. Università di Napoli "Federico II"
45. Politecnico di Milano
46. Polytechnic University of Milan
47. Università del Salento
48. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
49. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
50. Case Western Reserve University
51. Universität Siegen
52. Universidad Nacional de La Plata and CONICET
53. Instituto de Astronomía y Física del Espacio (IAFE, CONICET-UBA)
54. Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET
55. University of Buenos Aires
56. Instituto Federal de Educação
57. Universidad Nacional de San Agustin de Arequipa
58. "Horia Hulubei" National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering
59. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
60. National Autonomous University of Mexico
61. Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Fisicas
62. Universidade Federal do Paraná
63. Federal University of Paraná
64. Stichting Astronomisch Onderzoek in Nederland (ASTRON)
65. New York University
66. Michigan Technological University
67. J. Stefan Institute
68. University of Nova Gorica
69. University of Delaware
70. University of Chicago
71. Bergische Universität Wuppertal
72. Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana
73. Institute of Space Science
74. Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da Fonseca
75. Universidade Federal do ABC
76. Sorbonne Université
77. University of Wisconsin-Madison
78. Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB)
79. Université libre de Bruxelles
80. Università di Palermo
81. Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla
82. Università di Roma "Tor Vergata"
83. Laboratorio Atmósfera—Departamento de Investigaciones en Láseres y sus Aplicaciones—UNIDEF (CITEDEF-CONICET)
84. Charles University
85. Charles University in Prague
86. Universidad Industrial de Santander
87. Unidad Profesional Interdisciplinaria en Ingeniería y Tecnologías Avanzadas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (UPIITA-IPN)
88. Instituto Politécnico Nacional
89. Universidade Federal de Campina Grande
90. Universität Hamburg
91. University of Hamburg
92. Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale e Fisica Cosmica di Palermo (INAF)
93. University of Łódź
94. Universidad de Medellín
95. Universiteit van Amsterdam
96. University of Amsterdam

We report an investigation of the mass composition of cosmic rays with energies from 3 to 100 EeV (1 EeV=1018 eV) using the distributions of the depth of shower maximum Xmax. The analysis relies on ∼50,000 events recorded by the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory and a deep-learning-based reconstruction algorithm. Above energies of 5 EeV, the dataset offers a 10-fold increase in statistics with respect to fluorescence measurements at the Observatory. After cross-calibration using the fluorescence detector, this enables the first measurement of the evolution of the mean and the standard deviation of the Xmax distributions up to 100 EeV. Our findings are threefold: (i) The evolution of the mean logarithmic mass toward a heavier composition with increasing energy can be confirmed and is extended to 100 EeV. (ii) The evolution of the fluctuations of Xmax toward a heavier and purer composition with increasing energy can be confirmed with high statistics. We report a rather heavy composition and small fluctuations in Xmax at the highest energies. (iii) We find indications for a characteristic structure beyond a constant change in the mean logarithmic mass, featuring three breaks that are observed in proximity to the ankle, instep, and suppression features in the energy spectrum.

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Journal: Physical Review D

Publisher: American Physical Society (APS)

ISSN: 24700010

Volume: 111

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DOI 10.1103/physrevd.111.022003 Read more

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Measurement of the depth of maximum of air-shower profiles with energies between 1018.5 and 1020 eV using the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory and deep learning

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