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Inference of the Mass Composition of Cosmic Rays with Energies from 10^{18.5} to 10^{20} eV Using the Pierre Auger Observatory and Deep Learning.
Creators
- Abdul Halim, A1, 2
- Abreu, P3
- Aglietta, M4, 5, 6
- Allekotte, I7
- Almeida Cheminant, K8, 9, 10, 11
- Almela, A12, 13
- Aloisio, R14, 15, 5
- Alvarez-Muñiz, J16, 17
- Ammerman Yebra, J16, 17
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Anastasi, G A18, 5, 19
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Arnone, E4, 5, 27
- Arteaga Velázquez, J C28
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Assis, P3
- Avila, G29
- Avocone, E15, 5, 30
- Bakalova, A31, 32
- Barbato, F14, 15, 5
- Bartz Mocellin, A33
- Berat, C34, 35
- Bertaina, M E4, 5, 27
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- Bianciotto, M4, 5, 27
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- Binet, V40
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Buitink, S47
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Cazon, L16, 17
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Evoli, C14, 15, 5
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Mayotte, E33
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- and 356 more
- 1. University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.
- 2. University of Adelaide
- 3. Laboratório de Instrumentação e Física Experimental de Partículas-LIP and Instituto Superior Técnico-IST, Universidade de Lisboa-UL, Lisboa, Portugal.
- 4. INFN, Sezione di Torino, Torino, Italy.
- 5. Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare
- 6. Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino (INAF), Torino, Italy.
- 7. Centro Atómico Bariloche and Instituto Balseiro (CNEA-UNCuyo-CONICET), San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina.
- 8. Institute of Nuclear Physics PAN, Krakow, Poland.
- 9. IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- 10. Radboud University Nijmegen
- 11. Nationaal Instituut voor Kernfysica en Hoge Energie Fysica (NIKHEF), Science Park, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- 12. Instituto de Tecnologías en Detección y Astropartículas (CNEA, CONICET, UNSAM), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- 13. Universidad Tecnológica Nacional-Facultad Regional Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- 14. Gran Sasso Science Institute, L'Aquila, Italy.
- 15. INFN Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, Assergi (L'Aquila), Italy.
- 16. Instituto Galego de Física de Altas Enerxías (IGFAE), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
- 17. University of Santiago de Compostela
- 18. INFN, Sezione di Catania, Catania, Italy.
- 19. Università di Catania, Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Ettore Majorana", Catania, Italy.
- 20. Department of Physics and Astronomy, Lehman College, City University of New York, Bronx, New York, USA.
- 21. City University of New York
- 22. INFN, Sezione di Milano, Milano, Italy.
- 23. Università di Milano, Dipartimento di Fisica, Milano, Italy.
- 24. INFN, Sezione di Napoli, Napoli, Italy.
- 25. RWTH Aachen University, III. Physikalisches Institut A, Aachen, Germany.
- 26. RWTH Aachen University
- 27. Università Torino, Dipartimento di Fisica, Torino, Italy.
- 28. Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacán, México.
- 29. Observatorio Pierre Auger and Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica, Malargüe, Argentina.
- 30. Università dell'Aquila, Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche e Chimiche, L'Aquila, Italy.
- 31. Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic.
- 32. Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
- 33. Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, USA.
- 34. Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble Institute of Engineering Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPSC-IN2P3, 38000 Grenoble, France.
- 35. University of Grenoble
- 36. Departamento de Física and Departamento de Ciencias de la Atmósfera y los Océanos, FCEyN, Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- 37. University of Buenos Aires
- 38. IFLP, Universidad Nacional de La Plata and CONICET, La Plata, Argentina.
- 39. Instituto de Astronomía y Física del Espacio (IAFE, CONICET-UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- 40. Instituto de Física de Rosario (IFIR)-CONICET/U.N.R. and Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas U.N.R., Rosario, Argentina.
- 41. Instituto de Tecnologías en Detección y Astropartículas (CNEA, CONICET, UNSAM), and Universidad Tecnológica Nacional-Facultad Regional Mendoza (CONICET/CNEA), Mendoza, Argentina.
- 42. International Center of Advanced Studies and Instituto de Ciencias Físicas, ECyT-UNSAM and CONICET, Campus Miguelete-San Martín, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- 43. Laboratorio Atmósfera-Departamento de Investigaciones en Láseres y sus Aplicaciones-UNIDEF (CITEDEF-CONICET), Villa Martelli, Argentina.
- 44. Observatorio Pierre Auger, Malargüe, Argentina.
- 45. Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium.
- 46. Université libre de Bruxelles
- 47. Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Brussels, Belgium.
- 48. Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Fisicas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
- 49. Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da Fonseca, Petropolis, Brazil.
- 50. Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ), RJ, Brazil.
- 51. Universidade de São Paulo, Escola de Engenharia de Lorena, Lorena, SP, Brazil.
- 52. University of São Paulo
- 53. Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
- 54. Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Física, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
- 55. Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), IFGW, Campinas, SP, Brazil.
- 56. State University of Campinas
- 57. Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Brazil.
- 58. Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, Centro de Ciencias e Tecnologia, Campina Grande, Brazil.
- 59. Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil.
- 60. Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor Palotina, Palotina, Brazil.
- 61. Federal University of Paraná
- 62. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Física, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
- 63. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
- 64. Universidad de Medellín, Medellín, Colombia.
- 65. Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia.
- 66. Charles University, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Institute of Particle and Nuclear Physics, Prague, Czech Republic.
- 67. Charles University in Prague
- 68. Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
- 69. CNRS/IN2P3, IJCLab, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France.
- 70. Laboratoire de Physique Nucléaire et de Hautes Energies (LPNHE), Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, CNRS-IN2P3, Paris, France.
- 71. University of Paris
- 72. Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS/IN2P3, IJCLab, Orsay, France.
- 73. Bergische Universität Wuppertal, Department of Physics, Wuppertal, Germany.
- 74. Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Experimental Particle Physics, Karlsruhe, Germany.
- 75. Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
- 76. Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institut für Prozessdatenverarbeitung und Elektronik, Karlsruhe, Germany.
- 77. Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Astroparticle Physics, Karlsruhe, Germany.
- 78. Universität Hamburg, II. Institut für Theoretische Physik, Hamburg, Germany.
- 79. University of Hamburg
- 80. Universität Siegen, Department Physik-Experimentelle Teilchenphysik, Siegen, Germany.
- 81. INFN, Sezione di Lecce, Lecce, Italy.
- 82. INFN, Sezione di Roma "Tor Vergata", Roma, Italy.
- 83. Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale e Fisica Cosmica di Palermo (INAF), Palermo, Italy.
- 84. Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Aerospaziali, Milano, Italy.
- 85. Polytechnic University of Milan
- 86. Università del Salento, Dipartimento di Matematica e Fisica "E. De Giorgi", Lecce, Italy.
- 87. Università di Napoli "Federico II", Dipartimento di Fisica "Ettore Pancini", Napoli, Italy.
- 88. Università di Palermo, Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica "E. Segrè", Palermo, Italy.
- 89. Università di Roma "Tor Vergata", Dipartimento di Fisica, Roma, Italy.
- 90. Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, México.
- 91. Unidad Profesional Interdisciplinaria en Ingeniería y Tecnologías Avanzadas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (UPIITA-IPN), México, D.F., México.
- 92. Instituto Politécnico Nacional
- 93. Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, México.
- 94. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F., México.
- 95. National Autonomous University of Mexico
- 96. Universidad Nacional de San Agustin de Arequipa, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Formales, Arequipa, Peru.
- 97. University of Łódź, Faculty of High-Energy Astrophysics, Łódź, Poland.
- 98. "Horia Hulubei" National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Bucharest-Magurele, Romania.
- 99. Institute of Space Science, Bucharest-Magurele, Romania.
- 100. Center for Astrophysics and Cosmology (CAC), University of Nova Gorica, Nova Gorica, Slovenia.
- 101. Experimental Particle Physics Department, J. Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- 102. Universidad de Granada and C.A.F.P.E., Granada, Spain.
- 103. University of Granada
- 104. Stichting Astronomisch Onderzoek in Nederland (ASTRON), Dwingeloo, The Netherlands.
- 105. Universiteit van Amsterdam, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- 106. University of Amsterdam
- 107. Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
- 108. Case Western Reserve University
- 109. Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, USA.
- 110. New York University, New York, New York, USA.
- 111. New York University
- 112. University of Chicago, Enrico Fermi Institute, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 113. University of Chicago
- 114. University of Delaware, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Bartol Research Institute, Newark, Delaware, USA.
- 115. University of Delaware
- 116. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Physics and WIPAC, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
- 117. University of Wisconsin-Madison
Description
We present measurements of the atmospheric depth of the shower maximum X_{max}, inferred for the first time on an event-by-event level using the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory. Using deep learning, we were able to extend measurements of the X_{max} distributions up to energies of 100 EeV (10^{20} eV), not yet revealed by current measurements, providing new insights into the mass composition of cosmic rays at extreme energies. Gaining a 10-fold increase in statistics compared to the fluorescence detector data, we find evidence that the rate of change of the average X_{max} with the logarithm of energy features three breaks at 6.5±0.6(stat)±1(syst) EeV, 11±2(stat)±1(syst) EeV, and 31±5(stat)±3(syst) EeV, in the vicinity to the three prominent features (ankle, instep, suppression) of the cosmic-ray flux. The energy evolution of the mean and standard deviation of the measured X_{max} distributions indicates that the mass composition becomes increasingly heavier and purer, thus being incompatible with a large fraction of light nuclei between 50 and 100 EeV.
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Publication Details
Journal article
Journal:
Physical review letters
Publisher:
American Physical Society (APS)
ISSN:
10797114
Volume:
134
Pages:
021001
Funding
Financial Support
Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica
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Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas
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Australian Research Council
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Fonds De La Recherche Scientifique - FNRS
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Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
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HORIZON EUROPE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions — Grant: 101107047
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HORIZON EUROPE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions — Grant: 101065027
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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
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Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos
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Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
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Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo — Grant: 2010/07359-6
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Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo — Grant: 1999/05404-3
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Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovações e Comunicações
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Grantová Agentura České Republiky — Grant: GACR 24-13049S
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Akademie Věd České Republiky — Grant: CAS LQ100102401
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Ministerstvo Školství, Mládeže a Tělovýchovy — Grant: LM2023032
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Ministerstvo Školství, Mládeže a Tělovýchovy — Grant: CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001402
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Ministerstvo Školství, Mládeže a Tělovýchovy — Grant: CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/18_046/0016010
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Ministerstvo Školství, Mládeže a Tělovýchovy — Grant: CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/17_049/0008422
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Ministerstvo Školství, Mládeže a Tělovýchovy — Grant: CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004632
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Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules
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Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
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Conseil Régional, Île-de-France
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Institut national des sciences de l'Univers
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Institut Lagrange de Paris — Grant: LABEX ANR-10-LABX-63
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Institut Lagrange de Paris — Grant: ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02
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Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung
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Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
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Baden-Württemberg Stiftung
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Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics
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Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft
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Ministerium für Kultur und Wissenschaft des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen
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Ministerium für Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kunst Baden-Württemberg
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Instituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare
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Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica
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Ministero dell'Università e della Ricerca
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European Commission
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Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología — Grant: 167733
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Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
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Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap
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Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
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Ministerstwo Edukacji i Nauki — Grant: DIR/WK/2018/11
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Ministerstwo Edukacji i Nauki — Grant: 2022/WK/12
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Narodowe Centrum Nauki — Grant: 2016/22/M/ST9/00198
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Narodowe Centrum Nauki — Grant: 2016/23/B/ST9/01635
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Narodowe Centrum Nauki — Grant: 2020/39/B/ST9/01398
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Narodowe Centrum Nauki — Grant: 2022/45/B/ST9/02163
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European Regional Development Fund
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Programa Operacional Temático Factores de Competitividade
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Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
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Ministerul Cercetării, Inovării şi Digitalizării
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Unitatea Executiva pentru Finantarea Invatamantului Superior, a Cercetarii, Dezvoltarii si Inovarii — Grant: 30N/2023
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Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS — Grant: P1-0031
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Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS — Grant: P1-0385
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Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS — Grant: I0-0033
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Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS — Grant: N1-0111
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Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación — Grant: PID2019–105544 GB-I00
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Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación — Grant: PID2022-140510NB-I00
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Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación — Grant: RYC2019-027017-I
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Agencia Estatal de Investigación
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Xunta de Galicia
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Junta de Andalucía — Grant: SOMM17/6104/UGR
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Junta de Andalucía — Grant: P18-FR-4314
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U.S. Department of Energy — Grant: DE-AC02-07CH11359
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U.S. Department of Energy — Grant: DE-FR02-04ER41300
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U.S. Department of Energy — Grant: DE-FG02-99ER41107
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U.S. Department of Energy — Grant: DE-SC0011689
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National Science Foundation — Grant: 0450696
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Grainger Foundation
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United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
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Gobierno de la Provincia de Mendoza
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Municipalidad de Malargüe
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NDM Holdings and Valle Las Leñas
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Département Physique Nucléaire et Corpusculaire
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CETEMPS Center of Excellence
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Ministero degli Affari Esteri
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PAPIIT DGAPA-UNAM
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Dutch national e-infrastructure
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Romanian National Core Program LAPLAS VII — Grant: PN 23 21 01 02
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PNCDI III — Grant: PN-III-P1-1.1-TE-2021-0924/TE57/2022
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Marie Curie-IRSES/EPLANET
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European Particle Physics Latin American Network
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References